HISTORY OF BEFORE THE EARTH WAS FORMED

The big question

How did it all begin? That question has been asked and answered, in an infinite variety of creation stories, ever since human beings discovered speech. People have always felt certain of the answer, probably rather more certain than now. But then the answer in the past was provided by priests and by holy texts, easily trusted by…

HISTORY OF THE BALTIC

The northern sea: to the 16th century AD

The Baltic, as a great inland sea, has much in common with the Mediterranean. Each is of a size and complexity to ensure maximum interaction between the people living on its coasts. Each has only the narrowest outlet to the ocean, raising the enticing possibility of treating the sea as an inland…

HISTORY OF THE BALKANS

The Balkan peninsula

Whereas Spain and Italy are clear geographical regions, defined in the north by mountain ranges, the third peninsula projecting south into the Mediterranean is more amorphous. The Adriatic and Ionian seas define the Balkan peninsula on the west, and the Aegean and the Black Sea on the east. But to the north lie open plains…

HISTORY OF BABYLON

The empire of Hammurabi: 18th century BC

Babylon is just one among many small Mesopotamian kingdoms when Hammurabi becomes its ruler in about 1790. He defeats his rivals in the region, and establishes a society based on the rule of law (and famous also for the skill of its astronomers and mathematicians). By the end of his reign the whole…

HISTORY OF THE AZTECS

The Aztecs and Mexico City: 14th century AD

The Aztecs are a tribe, according to their own legends, from Aztlan somewhere in the north of modern Mexico. From this place, which they leave in about the 12th century AD, they derive their name as Aztecs. By the time they settle again, after two centuries of migration and warfare, they are…

HISTORY OF AUSTRIA

Austria and the Babenbergs: AD 976-1246

The heavily forested regions to the east of Bavaria are colonized and converted to Christianity, from the 8th century, by German pressure eastwards. Salzburg becomes a base for missionary activities. From 797 the city has its own archbishop.

In the early 10th century the region is under constant threat from Hungarians…

HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA

A place apart: from 50 million years ago

Although Australia is close to a chain of southeast Asian islands, it is believed to have been a separate land mass since about 50 million years ago. In that time much can happen in evolution, and the many species unique to Australia demonstrate the point. The best-known examples…

HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS CAESAR

Caesar’s heir: 44 – 37 BC

Gaius Octavius, known to history first as Octavian and then as Augustus Caesar, is born in 63 BC in a relatively obscure patrician family. His only evident advantage in life is that his grandmother is Julia, sister of Julius Caesar. His great-uncle sees talent in the boy and encourages him.

Octavian is an 18-year-old student…

HISTORY OF ATHENS

The founding fathers of western culture

Athens has a unique place in human history. As the people who pioneer the arts of history, philosophy and theatre, who attempt the first radical version of democracy, and who achieve a degree of perfection in architecture, sculpture and pottery, the Athenians have rightly acquired an almost legendary status.

They surface relatively late in the…

HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY

Astral themes

The sky is the most mysterious part of our everyday experience. Familiarity may make the amazing events going on at ground level seem almost ordinary. Plants and animals grow and die, rain falls, rivers flow. We feel we understand that.

But the sky is beyond comprehension. Two great objects travel through it, one hot and constant, the other cold…

HISTORY OF ASTROLOGY

Astral themes

The sky is the most mysterious part of our everyday experience. Familiarity may make the amazing events going on at ground level seem almost ordinary. Plants and animals grow and die, rain falls, rivers flow. We feel we understand that.

But the sky is beyond comprehension. Two great objects travel through it, one hot and constant, the other cold…